| Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) has been | | | | 1993). What is valued and viewed as normal in one |
| seen by many as the cornerstone of Early Childhood | | | | culture may not be reflected in any other culture. |
| education since the National Association for the | | | | Therefore educators need to develop broad and |
| Education of Young Children (NAEYC) published the | | | | meaningful understandings of their students' cultural |
| guidelines in 1987. The guidelines have been used | | | | backgrounds, goals for socialisation, beliefs about the |
| widely in educare settings such as preschool and | | | | nature of the child and various child rearing techniques |
| schools, with many educators accepting DAP as best | | | | (Nissani, 1993). These beliefs about children and how |
| practice for educating young children. Whilst DAP has | | | | they develop may differ from culture to culture. |
| been an highly successful approach for some | | | | Teachers may need to establish wide networks and |
| educators, other alternative approaches to educating | | | | meaningful relationships with families and members of |
| young children have recently been identified. Also, | | | | the community so they can develop sensitivity and |
| many criticisms of the DAP guidelines as they were | | | | understandings of their students' culture. By developing |
| originally written have been published. Two alternative | | | | these understandings and working closely with |
| discourses to Developmentally Appropriate Practice | | | | community, educators are able to prepare a more |
| will be considered in this paper. These alternative | | | | effective and appropriate educational program. |
| discourses include an academic approach to early | | | | Implementing a curriculum which addresses the cultural |
| childhood education and the identified cultural bias of | | | | heritage of children will certainly be more |
| Developmentally Appropriate Practice. | | | | developmentally appropriate than using curriculum |
| NAEYC's Position Statement (1987) suggests that | | | | guidelines which are culturally exclusive and reflective |
| children learn most effectively through a concrete, play | | | | of monocultural norms. It has been stated that DAP as |
| oriented approach to early childhood education (p36). A | | | | curricula knowledge base failed to acknowledge |
| child-oriented, play based program should address the | | | | multiple perspectives, tacit knowledge, subjective |
| physical, social, emotional and cognitive needs of the | | | | knowing and personal cultural involvement in making |
| children enrolled in the program. This type of program | | | | meaning, thereby reflecting a particular cultural |
| has been recognised by many as best practice in the | | | | worldview (Jipson, 1993, p128). It is important that |
| education of young children. In practice, this may mean | | | | curriculum is developed using many sources including |
| that children spend much of their day engaged in | | | | relevant child development knowledge, individual |
| active, meaningful play with toys, their peers, craft | | | | characteristics of children, subject knowledge, the |
| materials, blocks, paints, adults, outdoor equipment, | | | | values of the culture, parents' desires and the |
| books and other useful equipment. Play can be seen | | | | knowledge children need to function competently in |
| as beneficial in terms of children's learning as it | | | | society (NAEYC, 1994, p23). |
| challenges them to create, collaborate, problem solve, | | | | Educational programs aim to teach children the skills |
| predict, reflect and enhances their ability to | | | | necessary to function as an active citizen within |
| communicate (Education Queensland, 2003). | | | | society. The skills, knowledge, beliefs and attitudes |
| Alternatively, there are educational programs for young | | | | taught should reflect those that children experience |
| children consisting of direct instruction that do not view | | | | within their home and community life. It is believed that |
| play as a valid form of learning. These programs focus | | | | children's learning is enhanced when they perceive a |
| primarily on academic achievement (Spodek, Saracho, | | | | connectedness between home and school and when |
| & Davis, 1987, p178). Academic programs may | | | | what is valued in one system in honoured in the other |
| focus on skill and drills, learning of basic isolated facts | | | | (Kostelnik Soderman & Whiren 1993, p48). DAP |
| and completing worksheets. Kessler (1992, p21) | | | | guidelines (NAEYC 1987) as they were originally |
| suggested that the increasingly academic nature of | | | | published ignored the cultural impact on learning and did |
| early childhood programs is due to their inclusion within | | | | little to emphasize the importance of strengthened |
| school campuses. Academic programs are teaching | | | | home-school-community links. DAP emphasised |
| children the concepts and skills that were previously | | | | autonomy and focuses on the individual which may be |
| taught in the first year of formal schooling. Play is often | | | | in direct conflict with the ethos of other cultures, which |
| used within these programs as a form of relaxation | | | | may emphasise family groups and community over |
| after the children have completed their set work, | | | | individuals. According to Jipson critics have identified |
| rather than as valuable and meaningful learning | | | | major problems with trying to establish universality in |
| experiences. | | | | child development theories to cultures which do not |
| Elkind states that children learn best through direct | | | | share the same worldviews, languages or social |
| encounters with their world rather than through formal | | | | orientations (1993, p128). Jipson goes on to state that |
| education involving the inculcation of symbolic rules | | | | by redefining the interests of the child in terms of the |
| (1986, p1). These symbolic rules may include writing and | | | | traditions and expectations of his/her culture and by |
| number systems, which are extensively taught as part | | | | reconnecting the experiences of the child to the |
| of academic programs. The children enrolled in these | | | | context in which he/she lives and the cultural patterns |
| programs may have little opportunity to construct | | | | and values which she/he experiences, teachers could |
| knowledge or understandings for themselves. Letters | | | | undermine the bias seemingly inherent in DAP. The |
| and numbers may be taught in rote like fashion, rather | | | | concept of DAP could be transformed to become |
| than construction of concepts (Kessler, 1992, p29). | | | | culturally appropriate practice (1993, p134). The issue of |
| Teachers within these academic contexts may | | | | culture has had a huge impact on my practice over |
| provide too much highly structured formal education | | | | the course of my career and have used the DAP |
| for young children. Teaching methods can be too | | | | guidelines with varied success. |
| formal and are generally considered inappropriate for | | | | I found DAP guidelines to be an effective basis for |
| young children (Cotton & Conklin p1). These formal, | | | | curriculum whilst working as a Preschool teacher within |
| content-centred teaching methods may involve a lot of | | | | a long day child care centre. My students were all |
| seatwork and children will regularly engage in whole | | | | white middle class English first-language speakers. I did |
| class activities. Less time will be devoted to play due | | | | not encounter any difficulties or feel that I was unable |
| to its apparent lack of educational value (Grover, 2001, | | | | to address the children's needs and interests. I was of |
| p1). Play based, child centred programs provide a more | | | | a similar cultural background and the program reflected |
| open and flexible curriculum which should be more | | | | the children's life experiences. My experience working |
| suited to meeting the educational needs of young | | | | in a remote Aboriginal community was very different. I |
| children. | | | | did not share these children's cultural background. Nor |
| The type of program that teachers implement, either | | | | did I speak the same language, or share the same child |
| play based or academic may be impacted by many | | | | rearing beliefs or world view. Implementing DAP as I |
| things including expectations of the school community. | | | | knew it proved to be ineffective and difficult, and was |
| Given the context of the learning environment, different | | | | also met with resistance from community and school |
| approaches to teaching and learning may be | | | | staff, as previously discussed. My challenge was to |
| expected. My experiences have been impacted by | | | | develop some basic understandings about the |
| the expectations of the centre and school | | | | children's culture, day to day life, their interests and past |
| administration and the parents of the children enrolled in | | | | times and world view. I also needed some information |
| the programs. | | | | about expectations for normal child development and |
| During my time as a preschool teacher working in a | | | | expectations regarding acceptable behaviours. |
| long day care centre, I was expected to implement a | | | | Information about child rearing techniques was also |
| child centred, play based program based on DAP | | | | valuable. Most of the approaches, expectations and |
| principles. A developmentally appropriate program was | | | | practices by the Anindilyakwa people were very |
| expected and encouraged by centre staff, | | | | different from mine. What I knew to be 'true' about |
| administration and parents. Parents were encouraging | | | | how children develop, behave, speak and spend their |
| of this approach and none requested a more formal, | | | | day was not reflected within this culture. For example, |
| content based approach. | | | | some of the children enrolled in the preschool program |
| Alternatively I had a very different experience teaching | | | | were still being breastfed through out the school day |
| a combined Preschool/ Transition class in a state | | | | and their mother (or aunty or grandmother) was |
| school within a remote Aboriginal community. The | | | | expected to attend school with their child to support |
| school administration, staff and parents expected that | | | | their learning. The differences in child rearing techniques |
| the Early Childhood programs would be content based | | | | and expectations about how children develop were |
| using formal teaching methods. A play based, | | | | vast. A curriculum based on white, middle class |
| developmentally appropriate program was actively | | | | mainstream norms did not address the needs, interests |
| resisted by the parents and they believed that the | | | | and life experiences of these children. So, I developed |
| children were wasting their time engaging in play based | | | | a program which was reflective of these children's |
| learning experiences. Eventually I implemented a more | | | | realities, in conjunction with parents, a local language |
| formal academic style program, whilst still incorporating | | | | specialist, departmental advisors and representatives |
| as many play based activities as possible. School | | | | from the community who had education backgrounds. |
| learning, for this community meant children sitting at | | | | Eventually a program, although based on a more |
| desks, completing worksheets, and learning the English | | | | academic approach was developed and implemented |
| writing and number systems. It also involved in whole | | | | with the help of members of the community. This |
| class learning. Play was seen as a reward for working | | | | program was sensitive to and actively addressed the |
| hard on academic tasks, not as a meaningful and | | | | cultural heritage of these children. |
| engaging way of learning about the world. | | | | The new program demonstrated an understanding and |
| I found it very challenging to teach using what I | | | | responsiveness to the cultural and linguistic diversity of |
| believed to be inappropriate pedagogy for young | | | | the students and could be considered developmentally |
| children. It was my experience that an academic | | | | appropriate as identified within the revised guidelines |
| program may encourage children to recite rote-learned | | | | (NAEYC, 1997). The new program recognised the |
| facts. An academic approach failed to encourage the | | | | significance of family involvement and was based on a |
| children to become active, engaged, questioning | | | | jointly constructed, meaningful and contextually relevant |
| learners. It was also my experience that the inclusion | | | | curriculum (NAEYC, 1997). The socio-cultural |
| of early childhood units within school campuses | | | | relationships with the classroom had to be considered |
| impacted on what the school community viewed as | | | | due to social responsibilities and avoidance |
| appropriate for young children. As most schools are | | | | relationships. This type of social impact on learning was |
| academic in nature, one might expect similar to be | | | | not addressed in the DAP guidelines as they were |
| occurring in the early childhood units, however | | | | originally published. Although, social impact and cultural |
| inappropriate this may be. | | | | sensitivity are highlighted in the revised document. |
| The curriculum that I was encouraged to implement | | | | It was my experience that there are stark differences |
| was very similar to that of a Year One class. This | | | | in the expectations child develop, between those which |
| was challenging in itself as most of these children had | | | | form the basis of DAP and that of the Anindilyakwa |
| no spoken English and were of a spoken tradition. The | | | | people. Many Anindilyakwa children were dependant |
| first years of schooling were used to maximise the | | | | upon their mother or female carer for emotional |
| children's English language acquisition and to learn | | | | support and nurturing. Mothers, grandmothers and |
| expected school behaviours. Parents judged my | | | | aunties regularly attended school with their children. |
| effectiveness as a teacher by how well the children | | | | Yet, the children also were afforded a lot of freedom |
| were able to recite basic number facts or the alphabet | | | | and were encouraged to make many choices for |
| for example, rather than if the children had developed | | | | themselves. Many behaviours were accepted as long |
| pre-reading skills and basic mathematical | | | | as everyone was happy. This approach to child |
| understandings. These children were encouraged to be | | | | rearing and development differs from that of the |
| quiet, passive learners, usually engaged in whole class | | | | dominant Western culture, which was reflected in the |
| or table work, not actively engaged in meaningful | | | | original DAP guidelines. The program that was |
| play-based learning experiences. Another challenge in | | | | implemented reflected culturally specific expectations |
| implementing a quality program which met the needs | | | | about how the children would develop and behave. |
| of the children was related to the cultural bias inherent | | | | These understandings were developed through forging |
| of the NAEYC's original guidelines. | | | | relationships with members of the school community, |
| Developmentally Appropriate Practice was promoted | | | | which included parents, and community elders. It is |
| by many universities and teacher education courses | | | | though meaningful connections with the wider |
| as best practice for educating young children. It was | | | | community that teachers are able to develop |
| assumed by many that it would meet the needs of all | | | | educational programs that address the interests, |
| children within most educare contexts. This was not | | | | culture, language, emotional social, and physical needs |
| the case as the child development theories which | | | | of the children they teach. The revised |
| underpin DAP were based on white middle class | | | | Developmentally Appropriate Practice guidelines do |
| males and therefore have a cultural bias (Jispon, 1993). | | | | much to highlight the need for educators to be |
| Due to this cultural bias, DAP may not meet the needs | | | | sensitive and mindful of the cultural impact on children's |
| of all children, particularly those who do not share the | | | | learning. Also, that a child-centred, play based approach |
| monocultural values reflected in the guidelines. Goffin | | | | to educating young children appears to be the most |
| states that traditional reliance on white middle class | | | | successful and still represents best-practice. An |
| norms should be re-examined in light of the cultural | | | | academic approach to educating young children |
| diversity of the children who participate in early | | | | perhaps meet the needs of parents and school |
| childhood programs (1994, p195). Recent research has | | | | administrators, but does not represent the best |
| shown that developmental milestones and | | | | approach to educating young children. |
| expectations vary from culture to culture (Nissani, | | | | |